By Ahmed
PRE-ISLAMIC MALDIVES
by
Naseema Mohamed
Abstract
Maldives is a small country, a double string of coral islands, none of which are very large.
Nevertheless, in spite of its small size, the country has been populated for well over 2000
years. With research and archaeological excavations, the ancient history of the islands is at
last coming to light.
The language of the Maldives, Dhivehi, is of Indic origin, the people are of different
ethnicities, perhaps because of the strategic position of the islands, almost in the centre of
the most travelled routes in the Indian Ocean. Ships called at the Maldives, stopping over
during the stormy days of the monsoon, on their way to the East and on the return journey.
Trading ships also called at the islands, bartering their goods for cowries, ambergris,
tortoise shells, fish and coir rope. Some of the industries of the islands were fishing, ropemaking,
weaving, boat building and coconut cultivation.
Maldives converted to Islam in 1153 A.D. Recent archaeological evidence proves that until
the advent of Islam, the Buddhist religion had existed in the country. Buddhist relics and
ruins of monasteries have been found in many islands. Additional evidence of a Buddhistic
centuries, the islands seem to have remained an independent kingdom through most of its
known history. Maldives had its own system of rule, which seemed to have been suitable to
the geographical setting of this unique archipelago.
Mention of islands identifiable as Maldives were made in ancient Buddhist texts of India
and Sri Lanka. Roman and Greek writers, and in later centuries, Chinese, Arab and Persian
records also mention the Maldives. These records reveal that the ancient Maldivians were
seafarers and travelled long distances, to Rome, China, and perhaps other distant countries
for which no records now exist.
More extensive research, including scientific excavation of archaeological sites, will help
us gain a clearer picture of the country’s pre-Islamic past.
_______________________________________________________
Naseema Mohamed holds the position of Advisor in the National Centre for Linguistic and Historical Research, Male’
Republic of Maldives.
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Introduction
The Maldives are said to be little known, even “ unheard of ” by many writers, perhaps
because of their insignificant size and because the islands did not possess the mineral or
agricultural wealth desired by the medieval world. However, the islands have been
populated for over two thousand years, as shown by recent archaeological excavations.
Due to the climatic conditions, the heat and humidity, which do not make for the long
survival of artifacts, and the fact that most artifacts produced in the islands have of
necessity been made of non-durable materials, there is little to show as evidence of the
nation’s long history. The fact that the Maldives did not come to the attention of the betterknown
countries of the medieval world preserved the country’s anonymity for hundreds of
years.
In recent years efforts have been made to bring at least some of this history to light,
through archaeological and historical research and linguistic studies. Archaeological
evidence as well as copperplate records led to the discovery of the country’s Buddhistic
past during the pre-Islamic period. Research into the cowrie shell trade, has shown that
these islands had supplied cowries to many of the countries bordering the Indian Ocean and
countries further afield (Heimann 1980:48). Excavations have revealed that there was a
constant trade with Chinese vessels, which called at the Maldives on their way to trade
with the countries of the Middle East. These facts become self evident when the strategic
position of the Maldives in the Indian Ocean is taken into context. The Indian Ocean was
reputed to be the most travelled ocean in the ancient world, and therefore the islands which
lie in its central position is an easy port of call for food and water besides being a safe
harbour during the monsoons.
There are few sources of information about the pre – Islamic period of Maldives. Available
information indicates that there was “a matriarchal society, with myths and magicoreligious
beliefs, a system of class distinctions instead of the caste system” in existence in
many other South Asian countries, a king who was a father figure and whose power was
supreme, and a ruling system, “which was guided by time honoured customs and
traditions”(Maniku 1993: 39).
According to available historical sources, the islands converted to Islam in 1153 A.D.,
during the reign of King Tribhuvana Aaditya of the Theemuge Dynasty.
Copperplate Grants from the 12th Century A.D.
The oldest and most accurate Divehi records are copperplate grants from the late 12th
century known as “loamaafaanu ”. These loamaafaanu are specifically records of official
grants given by the ruling king to individual mosques, bestowing on them the benefits from
various islands for their expenditure and upkeep. Some of these copperplate grants were
first translated into modern Divehi and English in 1922, and more comprehensive
translations of two of these grants were made in 1982 and 1986. These translations opened
up a whole new area for research on the ancient history and customs of the people of the
Maldives.
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The copperplate grants, or loamaafaanu, of the 12th century records the names of the kings
of the late pre- Islamic period. The first king recorded in the loamaafaanus is “the great
King, Shri Mahaabarana of the noble house of Theemuge, the lord of the prosperous Lunar
Dynasty”(Maniku, Wijeyawardhana 1986: 1) who ascended the throne in c.1118 A.D. This
king was the founder of the Theemuge Dynasty, which ruled the country from c.1118 until
of twenty-one years, perhaps implying that at the time of his ascension to the throne, the
country was divided, and that he brought the kingdom under one rule. King Mahaabarana
is thought to be the Kaimala Kalo(or Koimala Kalo) of legend, a foreigner of noble blood
who arrived in Maldives with his family, and was invited by the islanders to become their
king. “Kaimal” is said to be a title given to certain Keralese noblemen (Bouchon
1988:225), therefore it is quite possible that this was a nobleman from Malabar fleeing a
hostile situation in his country. Mahaabarana was succeeded by his nephew, Swasthi Shri
Tribhuvana Aadheethiya, who ruled for a period of thiry-five years. It was during
Tribhuvana Aadheethiya’s reign, in the year 1153 A.D., that Maldives converted to Islam.
The copperplates also cast some light on the system of government and way of life that
existed in the country at the time. The script and the language of these loamaafaanu take us
back more than eight hundred years and give us an idea of the older Divehi language,
before the changes brought about by the influence of Persian, Arabic and European
languages. The loamaafaanu usually gave the name and lineage of the king who built the
mosque, the circumstances in which the mosque was built, and other important information
regarding the location and also, the names of the witnesses to the grant.
The two oldest of the existing loamaafaanu copperplate grants were translated in 1982 and
1986. One of these grants, the Isdhoo Loamaafaanu was written in 1195 and the other, the
Dhan’bidhoo Loamaafaanu in 1196 A.D. These dates were 42 and 43 years respectively,
after the official conversion of Maldives to Islam, but the incidents recorded in both
loamaafaanu show that the mosques in the two islands, Isdhoo and Dhan’bidhoo were built
immediately after their conversion (Wijeyawardhana and Dissanayaka 1982, Maniku and
Wijeyawardhana 1986). This places the dates of their conversion at 1195 and 1196 A.D,
and reveals the fact that although Maldives had officially converted to Islam in 1153 A.D.,
all the islands did not embrace the religion at the same time. Due to the distances and
difficulties of travel within the atolls, conversion of the entire country took much longer,
and until then the existing customs prevailed. Since these copperplates were inscribed soon
after the conversion, most of the customs and system of government of the earlier days
remained unchanged at the time of writing, and therefore, we have a reliable record of
some of the culture and customs that existed at the end of the Buddhist period in Maldives.
The Dan’bidhoo Loamaafaanu (Fig.1.) is written in the Eveyla script in old Dhivehi, and
describes the conversion of the island of Dhan’bidhoo by Sri Gadanaaditya, the reigning
king of the Theemuge Dynasty. He is said to have converted the inhabitants of the island,
destroyed the monastery, and in its place, built a mosque, naming it the Juma Masjidu
(Friday Mosque). The community of monks in the island was disbanded, the chief clans of
the island were identified and groups were formed to carry out Government duties.
Generous concessions were made to the poor of the island. Noteworthy is the fact that the
ruler had accurate information regarding the islands of the kingdom mentioned in the grant.
Donations to this mosque were to be given from some of the land in Male’ as well
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(Wijeyawardhana and Dissanayake 1982; Najeeb 2001), showing that even during ancient
times, the principal island had responsibilities towards distant islands of the kingdom.
Isdhoo Loamaafaanu written in 1195 A.D., also in the Eveyla script, was translated in
1986, and gives more information on existing customs. A description is given on how a
dwelling for one of the eminent families of the island should be constructed, including
instructions to cover the walls with Chinese silk (Maniku and Wijayawardhana 1986: 23).
This account is evidence of the fact that Chinese silk was a familiar commodity, giving rise
to the assumption that Chinese trading ships stopped at Maldives on their way to the
Middle East, exchanging their silks and other goods for the commodities they needed
through the common barter system. Other indications of the Chinese trade, lies in the fact
that shards of Chinese pottery dating to between the 9th and 19th centuries were found in
Maldives (Carswell 1996:505).
The copperplates also reveal that the rulers in the capital of Male’ were aware of
developments in other islands, even though travel between islands was difficult and time
consuming. The witnesses to the grant were ministers of the king; among the titles of these
ministers are some that existed until the mid-twentieth century. There was also a system of
land grant to families. These properties remained in families for generations, within a
matrilineal system of inheritance.
Information from Foreign Sources
There are some early sources of information, which may be referred to, that could also
shed light on pre-Islamic Maldives. The earliest mention of the Maldives, is in ancient
Buddhist Jatakas and in Sri Lankan texts, which refer to events that occurred between 300
– 250 B.C. A reference in the Mahavansa indicates the arrival of a group of exiles in the
Maldives around the period 300 B.C., at the same time as another group arrived in Sri
Lanka. These two groups are said to have come from the same place of origin in western
India (Maloney 1980). This could accommodate the hypothesis that Divehi and Sinhalese
separated from the same Prakrit (Cain 2000:3), which itself could have evolved in India.
The next mention of Maldives occurs in records of Roman and Greek writers, covering the
period 90 – 522 A.D., proving that the Maldives were known to travellers in the
Mediterranean countries. In 362 A.D., Ammianus Marcellinus records that among other
nations, the “Divis”(Maldivians) sent gifts to the Emperor Julian (Bell 1940:16; Maloney
1980:415). Other writers who have mentioned islands which may be identified as Maldives
include Pappus of Alexandria (about the end of the 4th century), Scholasticus the Theban
(circa AD 400) and Cosmas Indicopleustes (circa 535 AD) who probably gives the first
eyewitness description of the islands (Maloney 1980; Mikkelsen 2000).
Chinese documents from 658 and 662 A.D. record visits to China from ambassadors of
King Baladitya of Maldives, who brought gifts to the Emperor of China, consisting of
products from their country. These documents also mention the dependence of Maldives as
well as some other countries of the South Asian region on the ruler of South India, showing
that at that time, there was an inter-dependence of these countries on the sub-continent, and
that they had contacts with one another.
5
Other informative sources are the written records of travellers who came to the Maldives
during the period in question. Some writers wrote their records from hearsay, and some
from first hand information gathered during their travels in the Indian Ocean. Among these
are Arab and Persian travellers and merchants, who crossed the Indian Ocean in search of
commercial opportunities in the trade in ambergris, tortoise shell and spices. The
descriptions given by some of these travellers are convincing and corroborate the
information given in other accounts. There are also descriptions of boat-building
techniques unknown to the visitors; techniques used Maldives until recent times.
The most accurate information on Maldives, is given by Sulaiman (850 A.D.), Al Masudi
(visited Sri Lanka in 916 A.D.), Al Biruni (1030 A.D.) and Al Idrisi (1150 A.D.). These
writers give detailed information about Pre-Islamic Maldives, which they called Divah or
Dibadjat, its people, culture and society as well as trade (Bell 1940; Maloney 1980;
Mikkelsen 2000).
Accurate geographical descriptions of Maldives are given, about islands that lie between
the sea of Harkand (Bay of Bengal) and that of Lar (Gujarat), and number up to 1,900. The
produce of the islands, including ambergris from the seashore and cowries collected in the
same way as in later centuries, are mentioned. Weaving of fabric, building of ships and
houses and all kinds of work are said to have been executed with consummate art. These
accounts say that a queen ruled the islands, and the wealth of the country consisted of
cowries, which the queen amassed in large quantities in the royal depots (Sulaiman 850
A.D.; Masudi 916 A.D.).
The erosion of some islands, the formation of new islands, and the migration of the
populations from one to another, is described in detail (Abu Zayd 890 A.D., Al Biruni
1030 A.D.). Al Jawaliqi, writing in 1135 A.D., describes a queen named “Danhara”who
wore a robe of gold fabric, rode on an elephant and was accompanied by her attendants and
army. She was the ruler of the kingdom and lived on an island called Abannba (Male’),
where the inhabitants were in great number (Al Jawaliqi 1135 A.D.). Al Idrisi, writing in
1150 A.D. calls this chief island “Ambriya”(Al Idrisi c.1150).
The best description of the pre-Islamic culture of Maldives is given by Al-Idrisi. Writing in
Arabic in his book, “Kitab Nuzhat Al Mushtaq Fi Ikhtiraq Al Afaq” he described some of
the customs of the country. He says that the islands had a king who united them, protected
and defended them and made truce according to his ability. His wife acted as arbitrator
among the people and did not veil herself from them. When she issued any orders, her
husband, the chief, although he was present, did not interfere with any of her ordinances. It
had always been a custom with them that women arbitrated, a custom they always upheld.
Al Idrisi also says that this queen had riches, which she collected by means of certain
known taxes, and she then gave in charity the wealth thus acquired to the needy inhabitants
of her country. Her subjects are said to have hung silk cloths along her route during her
public appearances (Al Idrisi c.1150 A.D.).
Al Idrisi states that tortoise shell was the merchandise of the people of Dibajat (Maldives).
He writes that coconuts were cultivated on the islands and cowries were used as means of
exchange and these were said to comprise most of the King’s treasures. He described the
6
inhabitants of Dibajat as accomplished and skilful craftsmen. As an example, he says they
would weave a shirt with its two sleeves, its gores and its pocket, all in one piece. He also
states that the islanders built boats of small pieces of wood, and substantial houses and
other excellent buildings of hard stones. They are said to have constructed wooden houses
that floated on the water. These were probably storehouses for coconuts, built on platforms
in the shallow water, to keep out rodents. These wooden houses were called
“moodhuge”(sea houses), and were in use until the early years of the 20th century.
Sometimes the islanders used perfumed sandalwood in their buildings, for pride and
display (Al Idrisi c.1150 A.D.).
He also speaks of the “sewn” boats used for travel in the “Sea of India and China”.
Whether big or small, these were constructed out of well-hewn wood. The planks were put
edge-to-edge and trimmed and then “sewn with fibre” (tied with coir rope). The boats were
then caulked with the oil of the sperm whale, to stop up the seams. Even at the present day,
boat building in Maldives is called “dhoani banun”, which literally means tying boats, the
term used in the days when the above technique was employed. People from Oman and
Marbat (Hadramaut), belonging to Yemen, came to the islands and cut the wood of the
coconut palms and made ropes from the fibre of the palm with which they tied up the
wood. They took this wood back to their own countries and sold it or used it for different
purposes (Al Idrisi c.1150 A.D.).
Trading links with other countries seem to have been established very early. Cowrie shell
exports from the Maldives can be traced to the early centuries of the first millennium,
which links Bengali, African and even European sources. The discovery of a Roman coin,
identified as a Roman Republican Denarius of Caius Vibius Pansa minted at Rome in
either 90 or 89 B.C. within a reliquary of a Buddhist stupa excavated during 1958 in the
Maldives (Forbes 1982), gives rise to many questions. The worn state of the coin and the
fact that it was pierced indicated that it had been used for some years before ending up in
the ancient stupa. It also seems to indicate that some early contacts were made between the
Roman trading establishments in India and the Maldives. The reason for these contacts, if
any, may have been the availability of cowrie shells, money cowrie (cypraea moneta), in
the islands. Cowrie shells have been discovered in many different places of the ancient
world, and the primary producer of most of these was understood to be the Maldives
( Heimann 1980). As stated earlier in the literary sources, indications are, that the Maldives
was known to the outside world as early as in the Roman period.
Archaeological Evidence
It has been established that Buddhism was the religion of the Maldives before the
conversion to Islam in 1153 A.D. Evidence of this fact is overwhelming. Mounds
containing ancient Buddhist artifacts have been found in many islands throughout the
Maldives. The first reference to archaeological sites in Maldives was made in 1835, by
English naval officers Lieutenants I.A.Young and W.Christopher. They had been told by a
Buddhist priest, “who was well-read in Sinhalese Books, that two noted Temples of
Buddha” formerly existed in Maldives (Bell 1940:104)). Two other visitors to Maldives,
Mr. C. W. Rosset in 1886, and Mr. J. Stanley Gardiner in 1900, also recorded information
on the presence of ruins of Buddhist buildings on several islands (Bell 1940:104-105).
7
However, the most valuable contribution to archaeological data on pre-Islamic Maldives
was made by Mr. H. C. P. Bell, who collected a wealth of information during his later
visits to Maldives. Mr. Bell first visited Maldives in 1879 on another mission, and at the
end of that visit, he made the following observations in his provisional report:
“Whilst the evidence so far available is both quite insufficient, and of a nature too vague, to
warrant definite conclusion, it is far from improbable that a close scrutiny of names of
Islands, of non-Muhammadan (non-Muslim) customs and festivals, and, above all, an
Archaeological Survey will make it abundantly clear that Buddhist Missionaries, in the
spirit of the Asoka Edicts, departing to intermingle among all unbelievers, teaching better
things, carried their doctrine across the sea even to the despised and little known
Maldives.” (Bell 1940: 104).
The above observation suggests that Mr. Bell felt that it was quite probable that Buddhism
was brought to the Maldives about the same time as when missionary activity encouraged
by Emperor Asoka took place, resulting in the establishment of the religion in many South
Asian countries. However, it is left to doubt, whether the ancient missionaries regarded the
Maldives as “despised and little known.” As additional evidence of the islands’ past
religion, Mr. Bell noted the titles given to Maldivian royalty, and further, the names of
certain islands, which were suggestive of a Buddhistic past.
Mr. Bell returned twice more to Maldives. He visited many of the islands in the southern
atolls, which contained ancient mounds and investigated some of them. His findings were
published in detail in his monograph on the history, archaeology and epigraphy of
Maldives in 1940. These and subsequent findings of amateur Maldivian archaeologists
proved beyond doubt that Buddhist places of worship existed in Maldives before the
conversion to Islam.
In July 1958, a Maldivian team excavated the archaeological site in Thoddoo island in Ari
Atoll, where a figure of the Buddha (Fig.2.) and a relic casket was found. This was the
reliquary in which the earlier mentioned Roman coin was found.
An amateur archaeological expedition was undertaken by a Maldivian team in February
1959, to Ariadhoo island in Ari Atoll, where some ancient mounds were investigated. No
Buddhist relics were found, but another important relic was excavated, a carved coral
phallus (linga), 15 inches in height and 12 inches in circumference at the base (Maniku
1993:41). This was a unique find in Maldives, and lent weight to the theory that Hinduism
had also existed in the country during a bygone age.
In later years, several artifacts including images, caskets and miniature stupas belonging to
the Vajrayana sect of Buddhism, were found in various places in Male’ and in Ari Atoll. A
later archaeological find, also of Vajrayana context, had carvings of Hindu deities Siva,
Lakshmi, Kubera and sage Agasthiya. The cult of sage Agasthiya, being related to
maritime activities, was common in South India, Sri Lanka and also in Southeast Asia
(Ragupathy 1994).
In 1983-84 the Maldivian Government in collaboration with the Kon-Tiki Museum of
Oslo, undertook some excavations in Nilandhoo in Nilandhoo Atoll, one of the southern
8
atolls of Maldives. The report of this expedition states that the ancient Havitta (chaitya)
ruin on Nilandhoo Island was built about 400 years before the conversion to Islam. It
further stated that the finds of discarded building material with classic designs, in the fill
inside the ruins, indicated an older structure in the same locality, or in the neighbourhood
(Skjolsvold 1991). This could indicate an older Buddhist structure, or one belonging to an
earlier religion, since the ancient Maldivians built places of worship on older sites, after
destroying the existing buildings.
The same team visited other islands, which had ancient sites, including Vaadhoo and Gan
in South Huvadhoo Atoll. During their short stay in Gan, they found interesting material,
reminiscent of such sites in other countries of the region. Finds from Bodu Havitta, the
biggest mound on the island, included many decorated and moulded coral stone fragments
with a common motif. These were decorative elements including symbols of concentric
circles with a trisected band–like decoration on either side. They found especially striking,
the similarity of this design with the decoration displayed on a marble panel at Amaravati,
depicting “The Great Departure”, a panel dated to the second century A. D. The same motif
occurs on railings at the entrance of a Buddhist cave sanctuary at Udayagiri in Orissa
(Skjolsvold 1991:52-54 and 67-69). Due to the lack of time, the team did not have the
opportunity to carry out a full excavation of the site.
In cooperation with the National Centre for Linguistics and Historical Research in Male’,
archaeological excavations were conducted at Kaashidhoo Island in Kaafu Atoll, by
Professor Egil Mikkelsen of the University of Oslo, Norway, from 1996 to1998. These
excavations revealed that a Buddhist culture was established there “in the first part of the
first millennium A.D. probably founded on an Indian origin. Exchange relations were
established with South Asia and according to written sources, also with the Roman World,
and later also with China”(Mikkelsen 2000:22). There was also a Chinese bronze coin, a
cash-coin from the Northern Song Dynasty, struck under the Emperor T’ai Tsung in 990-
94 A.D (Mikkelsen 2000:21), indicating Chinese contacts in the 10th century.
The available findings led Mikkelsen to believe that cowrie shells played an important role
in the Buddhist culture and religion that existed in Maldives at that time, symbolically, as
well as in terms of economics. In his report he states that, around 500 A.D. when cowrie
shells spread to northern and central Europe, as shown by archaeological finds, they were
also mentioned as trading products from Maldives (Mikkelsen 2000). The ruler of
Maldives had control over the export and exchange of cowrie shells, leading to the import
of other commodities such as beads, gold and silver as well as metal objects which were
not available in Maldives. Other materials exchanged for cowries included pottery, china
and clay objects for everyday use. Mikkelsen was of the opinion that this provided for a
rich monastic culture in Maldives and that it could have been the start of the spread of
cowrie shells to the north. He felt that distance in itself was not necessarily a limitation on
contact (Mikkelsen 2000), which is proven by the fact that cowrie shells from islands in the
Indian Ocean found their way to the Far East, even to distant China.
Among the relics found at the Kaashidhoo site were offerings of bones of the giant tortoise
(Aldabrachelys elephantina), showing that this species existed in Maldives at that time.
Bones of turtles were also found ( Mikkelsen 2000:17).
9
During the last Buddhist period before the introduction of Islam, from the 10th to the late
12th century, part of the monastery site was used as a burial ground. Bones from four
graves were carbon dated, resulting in dates varying between the late 9th to the 12th century
A.D.
According to Mikkelsen’s findings, there were several different stages in the building of
the Kaashidhoo monastery, the structures being founded on different levels on older floors.
In some places, white coral sand had been used to cover older structures before the
construction of new buildings. Since the conclusion reached was, that building commenced
around the beginning of the 3rd century A.D., and continued until the 6th century A.D., it
may be assumed that by the 3rd century A.D., Buddhism had been well established in
Kaashidhoo. Mikkelsen felt that the building of miniature stupas, and conducting of
sacrificial ceremonies continued through the 7th to the 9th century. He found many
similarities to the type of construction found at Kaashidhoo, at Ratnagira in Orissa state in
India. (Mikkelsen 2000:21).
Language and Scripts
Linguistic research into the Dhivehi (Maldivian) language shows a divergence of Dhivehi
from its mother language as early as the 2nd or 1st century B.C (Cain 2000), indicating that
speakers of this idiom may have arrived in the Maldives prior to this period. Linguistic
evidence shows a close relationship between Dhivehi and Sinhala, both languages having
evolved from the same Prakrit, Proto-Dhivehi-Sinhala. B.Cain (2000:3) is of the opinion
that “perhaps as early as the 2nd c. B.C., Proto-Dhivehi-Sinhala came to the Maldives and
became the lingua franca of a diverse population made up of Aryan speakers, Dravidians
and possibly others”(Cain 2000:3). Frequent contact with neighbouring countries resulted
in their influence on Dhivehi and its development through the following centuries.
The earliest palaeographically datable inscription found in Maldives is a Sanskrit
inscription of Vajrayana Buddhism written in the Nagari script and can be dated to the 9th
century A.D. (Ragupathy 1994). This inscription is on the cover of a coral stone casket
(Fig.3.)
The earliest Maldivian script is Eveyla Akuru,the oldest examples of which can be found
on the Vajrayana images and artifacts that may be datable from the 9th to the 10th century
A.D. Later examples of this script can be found in the copperplate records of the 12th and
13th century A.D. Eveyla Akuru has close affinities with Sinhala Elu and Tamil and
Malayalam Vatteluttu scripts. As these scripts evolved from a common branch of Brahmi,
there are strong similarities between Eveyla, Elu and the South Indian scripts (Ragupathy
1994).
Conclusion
Interpreting the information gathered from sources within Maldives and data gathered from
documents from various parts of the world, the conclusion may be reached that Maldives
has been peopled for more than 2000 years. The earliest religion followed by the
Maldivians is not known, but the theory that Hinduism had existed at some ancient period
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cannot be discarded. Immediately prior to the conversion to Islam, the Buddhist religion
existed in the islands, archaeological evidence pointing to a Buddhist culture that was in
place in the first part of the first millennium A.D.
The islands were independent for most of its known history, and were ruled by kings and
queens. The country had its own system of governance suited to its geographical situation.
The rulers of the country maintained contacts with countries of the region and powerful
nations. The islanders were hardy seafarers, and travelled long distances. Trading vessels
called at Maldives and sailors of the Indian Ocean had a fair knowledge of the country.
Structures were constructed out of available materials, hard coral stone and the timber of
the coconut palm, which grew in abundance. Fishing, boat building and coconut cultivation
were some of the important industries of pre-Islamic Maldives.
The difficulty for researchers of Maldivian history lies in the fact that many records and
artifacts of that early period no longer exist, and what remained was neglected for many
centuries. However, archaeological excavation could still bring to light the historical
information that lies buried beneath the soil of these islands, providing the answers to
questions on Maldives’ pre-Islamic past.
REFERENCES
Bell, H.C.P. 1940. The Maldive Islands, Monograph on the History, Archaeology and
Epigraphy. Colombo: Ceylon Government Press. Reprinted in 1985. Male’: National
Centre for Linguistic and Historical Research.
Bouchon, Genevieve 1988. Regent of the Sea. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Cain, B.D. 2000. Dhivehi (Maldivian): A Synchronic and Diachronic Study. Ph.D.
Dissertation, Cornell University.
Carswell, John. 1988. The Excavation of Mantai, Paper presented at the Indian Ocean in
Antiquity Conference at The British Museum. Printed in 1996. London: Kegan Paul
International.
Ferrand, Gabriel.1922. Voyage du Marchand Arab Sulayman en Inde et en Chine. A.D.
850. Paris.
Forbes, Andrew D.W. 1982. A Roman Republican Denarius of c.90 B.C. from the Maldive
Islands, Numismatic Chronicle. London. (Paper submitted on 22 December 1982).
Heimann, James. 1980. Small change and Ballast: Cowry Trade and usage as an example
of Indian Ocean Economic History, South Asia Journal of South Asian Studies. Indian
Ocean Issue N.S. Vol. III. No. I. 48-69.
Jaubert, P.A. 1836-40. Geogrphie d’Edrisi Vol. I-2. Paris.
11
Maloney, Clarence. 1980. People of the Maldive Islands. Madras: Orient Longman.
Maniku, H.A. 1993. Archaeology in Maldives: An Historical Survey. Paper presented at the
South Asian Archaeological Congress. Male’.
Maniku, H.A. and G.D.Wijayawardhana. 1986. Isdhoo Loamaafaanu. Colombo: Royal
Asiatic Society of Sri Lanka.
Mikkelsen Egil. 2000. Archaeological Excavations of a Monastery at Kaashidhoo. Male’.
National Centre for Linguistic and Historical Research.
Najeeb, Ali. 2001. Dhan’bidhoo Loamaafaanu. (Dhivehi Language). Male’.
Ragupathy, P. 1994: The South Asian Heritage of Early Maldives. Male’.
Reinaud, Joseph Toussaint. 1848. Geographie d’Aboulfeda (French Translation).Tome I.
Paris.
Sachau, Edward C.1888 / 1914. Al Beruni’s India. Vol. I and Vol. II. (Translation).
London.
Sachau, M. 1867: Al Jawaliqi Arabic Manuscripts. Translation (German). Leipzig.
Skjolsvold, Arne. 1991. Archaeological Test-Excavations on the Maldive Islands. In: Arne
Skjolsvold (Ed.) The Kon-Tiki Museum Occasional Papers, Vol. 2. 5-184. Oslo.
Sprenger, Aloys. 1841. Meadows of Gold and Mines of Gems. El Masudi. London. Oriental
Translation Fund.
Vilgon, Lars. 1991-99. Maldives Odd History. The Maldive Archipelago and its People,
Vol. 1-9. Stockholm.
Wijayawardhana, G.D. and J.B.Dissanayaka. 1982. Loamaafaanu: Transliteration,
Translation and Notes on Paleography, Vol. I. Male’: National Centre for Linguistic and
Historical Research.
by
Naseema Mohamed
Abstract
Maldives is a small country, a double string of coral islands, none of which are very large.
Nevertheless, in spite of its small size, the country has been populated for well over 2000
years. With research and archaeological excavations, the ancient history of the islands is at
last coming to light.
The language of the Maldives, Dhivehi, is of Indic origin, the people are of different
ethnicities, perhaps because of the strategic position of the islands, almost in the centre of
the most travelled routes in the Indian Ocean. Ships called at the Maldives, stopping over
during the stormy days of the monsoon, on their way to the East and on the return journey.
Trading ships also called at the islands, bartering their goods for cowries, ambergris,
tortoise shells, fish and coir rope. Some of the industries of the islands were fishing, ropemaking,
weaving, boat building and coconut cultivation.
Maldives converted to Islam in 1153 A.D. Recent archaeological evidence proves that until
the advent of Islam, the Buddhist religion had existed in the country. Buddhist relics and
ruins of monasteries have been found in many islands. Additional evidence of a Buddhistic
- past was found in late 12th century copperplate grants, translated in the 1980’s.
centuries, the islands seem to have remained an independent kingdom through most of its
known history. Maldives had its own system of rule, which seemed to have been suitable to
the geographical setting of this unique archipelago.
Mention of islands identifiable as Maldives were made in ancient Buddhist texts of India
and Sri Lanka. Roman and Greek writers, and in later centuries, Chinese, Arab and Persian
records also mention the Maldives. These records reveal that the ancient Maldivians were
seafarers and travelled long distances, to Rome, China, and perhaps other distant countries
for which no records now exist.
More extensive research, including scientific excavation of archaeological sites, will help
us gain a clearer picture of the country’s pre-Islamic past.
_______________________________________________________
Naseema Mohamed holds the position of Advisor in the National Centre for Linguistic and Historical Research, Male’
Republic of Maldives.
2
Introduction
The Maldives are said to be little known, even “ unheard of ” by many writers, perhaps
because of their insignificant size and because the islands did not possess the mineral or
agricultural wealth desired by the medieval world. However, the islands have been
populated for over two thousand years, as shown by recent archaeological excavations.
Due to the climatic conditions, the heat and humidity, which do not make for the long
survival of artifacts, and the fact that most artifacts produced in the islands have of
necessity been made of non-durable materials, there is little to show as evidence of the
nation’s long history. The fact that the Maldives did not come to the attention of the betterknown
countries of the medieval world preserved the country’s anonymity for hundreds of
years.
In recent years efforts have been made to bring at least some of this history to light,
through archaeological and historical research and linguistic studies. Archaeological
evidence as well as copperplate records led to the discovery of the country’s Buddhistic
past during the pre-Islamic period. Research into the cowrie shell trade, has shown that
these islands had supplied cowries to many of the countries bordering the Indian Ocean and
countries further afield (Heimann 1980:48). Excavations have revealed that there was a
constant trade with Chinese vessels, which called at the Maldives on their way to trade
with the countries of the Middle East. These facts become self evident when the strategic
position of the Maldives in the Indian Ocean is taken into context. The Indian Ocean was
reputed to be the most travelled ocean in the ancient world, and therefore the islands which
lie in its central position is an easy port of call for food and water besides being a safe
harbour during the monsoons.
There are few sources of information about the pre – Islamic period of Maldives. Available
information indicates that there was “a matriarchal society, with myths and magicoreligious
beliefs, a system of class distinctions instead of the caste system” in existence in
many other South Asian countries, a king who was a father figure and whose power was
supreme, and a ruling system, “which was guided by time honoured customs and
traditions”(Maniku 1993: 39).
According to available historical sources, the islands converted to Islam in 1153 A.D.,
during the reign of King Tribhuvana Aaditya of the Theemuge Dynasty.
Copperplate Grants from the 12th Century A.D.
The oldest and most accurate Divehi records are copperplate grants from the late 12th
century known as “loamaafaanu ”. These loamaafaanu are specifically records of official
grants given by the ruling king to individual mosques, bestowing on them the benefits from
various islands for their expenditure and upkeep. Some of these copperplate grants were
first translated into modern Divehi and English in 1922, and more comprehensive
translations of two of these grants were made in 1982 and 1986. These translations opened
up a whole new area for research on the ancient history and customs of the people of the
Maldives.
3
The copperplate grants, or loamaafaanu, of the 12th century records the names of the kings
of the late pre- Islamic period. The first king recorded in the loamaafaanus is “the great
King, Shri Mahaabarana of the noble house of Theemuge, the lord of the prosperous Lunar
Dynasty”(Maniku, Wijeyawardhana 1986: 1) who ascended the throne in c.1118 A.D. This
king was the founder of the Theemuge Dynasty, which ruled the country from c.1118 until
of twenty-one years, perhaps implying that at the time of his ascension to the throne, the
country was divided, and that he brought the kingdom under one rule. King Mahaabarana
is thought to be the Kaimala Kalo(or Koimala Kalo) of legend, a foreigner of noble blood
who arrived in Maldives with his family, and was invited by the islanders to become their
king. “Kaimal” is said to be a title given to certain Keralese noblemen (Bouchon
1988:225), therefore it is quite possible that this was a nobleman from Malabar fleeing a
hostile situation in his country. Mahaabarana was succeeded by his nephew, Swasthi Shri
Tribhuvana Aadheethiya, who ruled for a period of thiry-five years. It was during
Tribhuvana Aadheethiya’s reign, in the year 1153 A.D., that Maldives converted to Islam.
The copperplates also cast some light on the system of government and way of life that
existed in the country at the time. The script and the language of these loamaafaanu take us
back more than eight hundred years and give us an idea of the older Divehi language,
before the changes brought about by the influence of Persian, Arabic and European
languages. The loamaafaanu usually gave the name and lineage of the king who built the
mosque, the circumstances in which the mosque was built, and other important information
regarding the location and also, the names of the witnesses to the grant.
The two oldest of the existing loamaafaanu copperplate grants were translated in 1982 and
1986. One of these grants, the Isdhoo Loamaafaanu was written in 1195 and the other, the
Dhan’bidhoo Loamaafaanu in 1196 A.D. These dates were 42 and 43 years respectively,
after the official conversion of Maldives to Islam, but the incidents recorded in both
loamaafaanu show that the mosques in the two islands, Isdhoo and Dhan’bidhoo were built
immediately after their conversion (Wijeyawardhana and Dissanayaka 1982, Maniku and
Wijeyawardhana 1986). This places the dates of their conversion at 1195 and 1196 A.D,
and reveals the fact that although Maldives had officially converted to Islam in 1153 A.D.,
all the islands did not embrace the religion at the same time. Due to the distances and
difficulties of travel within the atolls, conversion of the entire country took much longer,
and until then the existing customs prevailed. Since these copperplates were inscribed soon
after the conversion, most of the customs and system of government of the earlier days
remained unchanged at the time of writing, and therefore, we have a reliable record of
some of the culture and customs that existed at the end of the Buddhist period in Maldives.
The Dan’bidhoo Loamaafaanu (Fig.1.) is written in the Eveyla script in old Dhivehi, and
describes the conversion of the island of Dhan’bidhoo by Sri Gadanaaditya, the reigning
king of the Theemuge Dynasty. He is said to have converted the inhabitants of the island,
destroyed the monastery, and in its place, built a mosque, naming it the Juma Masjidu
(Friday Mosque). The community of monks in the island was disbanded, the chief clans of
the island were identified and groups were formed to carry out Government duties.
Generous concessions were made to the poor of the island. Noteworthy is the fact that the
ruler had accurate information regarding the islands of the kingdom mentioned in the grant.
Donations to this mosque were to be given from some of the land in Male’ as well
4
(Wijeyawardhana and Dissanayake 1982; Najeeb 2001), showing that even during ancient
times, the principal island had responsibilities towards distant islands of the kingdom.
Isdhoo Loamaafaanu written in 1195 A.D., also in the Eveyla script, was translated in
1986, and gives more information on existing customs. A description is given on how a
dwelling for one of the eminent families of the island should be constructed, including
instructions to cover the walls with Chinese silk (Maniku and Wijayawardhana 1986: 23).
This account is evidence of the fact that Chinese silk was a familiar commodity, giving rise
to the assumption that Chinese trading ships stopped at Maldives on their way to the
Middle East, exchanging their silks and other goods for the commodities they needed
through the common barter system. Other indications of the Chinese trade, lies in the fact
that shards of Chinese pottery dating to between the 9th and 19th centuries were found in
Maldives (Carswell 1996:505).
The copperplates also reveal that the rulers in the capital of Male’ were aware of
developments in other islands, even though travel between islands was difficult and time
consuming. The witnesses to the grant were ministers of the king; among the titles of these
ministers are some that existed until the mid-twentieth century. There was also a system of
land grant to families. These properties remained in families for generations, within a
matrilineal system of inheritance.
Information from Foreign Sources
There are some early sources of information, which may be referred to, that could also
shed light on pre-Islamic Maldives. The earliest mention of the Maldives, is in ancient
Buddhist Jatakas and in Sri Lankan texts, which refer to events that occurred between 300
– 250 B.C. A reference in the Mahavansa indicates the arrival of a group of exiles in the
Maldives around the period 300 B.C., at the same time as another group arrived in Sri
Lanka. These two groups are said to have come from the same place of origin in western
India (Maloney 1980). This could accommodate the hypothesis that Divehi and Sinhalese
separated from the same Prakrit (Cain 2000:3), which itself could have evolved in India.
The next mention of Maldives occurs in records of Roman and Greek writers, covering the
period 90 – 522 A.D., proving that the Maldives were known to travellers in the
Mediterranean countries. In 362 A.D., Ammianus Marcellinus records that among other
nations, the “Divis”(Maldivians) sent gifts to the Emperor Julian (Bell 1940:16; Maloney
1980:415). Other writers who have mentioned islands which may be identified as Maldives
include Pappus of Alexandria (about the end of the 4th century), Scholasticus the Theban
(circa AD 400) and Cosmas Indicopleustes (circa 535 AD) who probably gives the first
eyewitness description of the islands (Maloney 1980; Mikkelsen 2000).
Chinese documents from 658 and 662 A.D. record visits to China from ambassadors of
King Baladitya of Maldives, who brought gifts to the Emperor of China, consisting of
products from their country. These documents also mention the dependence of Maldives as
well as some other countries of the South Asian region on the ruler of South India, showing
that at that time, there was an inter-dependence of these countries on the sub-continent, and
that they had contacts with one another.
5
Other informative sources are the written records of travellers who came to the Maldives
during the period in question. Some writers wrote their records from hearsay, and some
from first hand information gathered during their travels in the Indian Ocean. Among these
are Arab and Persian travellers and merchants, who crossed the Indian Ocean in search of
commercial opportunities in the trade in ambergris, tortoise shell and spices. The
descriptions given by some of these travellers are convincing and corroborate the
information given in other accounts. There are also descriptions of boat-building
techniques unknown to the visitors; techniques used Maldives until recent times.
The most accurate information on Maldives, is given by Sulaiman (850 A.D.), Al Masudi
(visited Sri Lanka in 916 A.D.), Al Biruni (1030 A.D.) and Al Idrisi (1150 A.D.). These
writers give detailed information about Pre-Islamic Maldives, which they called Divah or
Dibadjat, its people, culture and society as well as trade (Bell 1940; Maloney 1980;
Mikkelsen 2000).
Accurate geographical descriptions of Maldives are given, about islands that lie between
the sea of Harkand (Bay of Bengal) and that of Lar (Gujarat), and number up to 1,900. The
produce of the islands, including ambergris from the seashore and cowries collected in the
same way as in later centuries, are mentioned. Weaving of fabric, building of ships and
houses and all kinds of work are said to have been executed with consummate art. These
accounts say that a queen ruled the islands, and the wealth of the country consisted of
cowries, which the queen amassed in large quantities in the royal depots (Sulaiman 850
A.D.; Masudi 916 A.D.).
The erosion of some islands, the formation of new islands, and the migration of the
populations from one to another, is described in detail (Abu Zayd 890 A.D., Al Biruni
1030 A.D.). Al Jawaliqi, writing in 1135 A.D., describes a queen named “Danhara”who
wore a robe of gold fabric, rode on an elephant and was accompanied by her attendants and
army. She was the ruler of the kingdom and lived on an island called Abannba (Male’),
where the inhabitants were in great number (Al Jawaliqi 1135 A.D.). Al Idrisi, writing in
1150 A.D. calls this chief island “Ambriya”(Al Idrisi c.1150).
The best description of the pre-Islamic culture of Maldives is given by Al-Idrisi. Writing in
Arabic in his book, “Kitab Nuzhat Al Mushtaq Fi Ikhtiraq Al Afaq” he described some of
the customs of the country. He says that the islands had a king who united them, protected
and defended them and made truce according to his ability. His wife acted as arbitrator
among the people and did not veil herself from them. When she issued any orders, her
husband, the chief, although he was present, did not interfere with any of her ordinances. It
had always been a custom with them that women arbitrated, a custom they always upheld.
Al Idrisi also says that this queen had riches, which she collected by means of certain
known taxes, and she then gave in charity the wealth thus acquired to the needy inhabitants
of her country. Her subjects are said to have hung silk cloths along her route during her
public appearances (Al Idrisi c.1150 A.D.).
Al Idrisi states that tortoise shell was the merchandise of the people of Dibajat (Maldives).
He writes that coconuts were cultivated on the islands and cowries were used as means of
exchange and these were said to comprise most of the King’s treasures. He described the
6
inhabitants of Dibajat as accomplished and skilful craftsmen. As an example, he says they
would weave a shirt with its two sleeves, its gores and its pocket, all in one piece. He also
states that the islanders built boats of small pieces of wood, and substantial houses and
other excellent buildings of hard stones. They are said to have constructed wooden houses
that floated on the water. These were probably storehouses for coconuts, built on platforms
in the shallow water, to keep out rodents. These wooden houses were called
“moodhuge”(sea houses), and were in use until the early years of the 20th century.
Sometimes the islanders used perfumed sandalwood in their buildings, for pride and
display (Al Idrisi c.1150 A.D.).
He also speaks of the “sewn” boats used for travel in the “Sea of India and China”.
Whether big or small, these were constructed out of well-hewn wood. The planks were put
edge-to-edge and trimmed and then “sewn with fibre” (tied with coir rope). The boats were
then caulked with the oil of the sperm whale, to stop up the seams. Even at the present day,
boat building in Maldives is called “dhoani banun”, which literally means tying boats, the
term used in the days when the above technique was employed. People from Oman and
Marbat (Hadramaut), belonging to Yemen, came to the islands and cut the wood of the
coconut palms and made ropes from the fibre of the palm with which they tied up the
wood. They took this wood back to their own countries and sold it or used it for different
purposes (Al Idrisi c.1150 A.D.).
Trading links with other countries seem to have been established very early. Cowrie shell
exports from the Maldives can be traced to the early centuries of the first millennium,
which links Bengali, African and even European sources. The discovery of a Roman coin,
identified as a Roman Republican Denarius of Caius Vibius Pansa minted at Rome in
either 90 or 89 B.C. within a reliquary of a Buddhist stupa excavated during 1958 in the
Maldives (Forbes 1982), gives rise to many questions. The worn state of the coin and the
fact that it was pierced indicated that it had been used for some years before ending up in
the ancient stupa. It also seems to indicate that some early contacts were made between the
Roman trading establishments in India and the Maldives. The reason for these contacts, if
any, may have been the availability of cowrie shells, money cowrie (cypraea moneta), in
the islands. Cowrie shells have been discovered in many different places of the ancient
world, and the primary producer of most of these was understood to be the Maldives
( Heimann 1980). As stated earlier in the literary sources, indications are, that the Maldives
was known to the outside world as early as in the Roman period.
Archaeological Evidence
It has been established that Buddhism was the religion of the Maldives before the
conversion to Islam in 1153 A.D. Evidence of this fact is overwhelming. Mounds
containing ancient Buddhist artifacts have been found in many islands throughout the
Maldives. The first reference to archaeological sites in Maldives was made in 1835, by
English naval officers Lieutenants I.A.Young and W.Christopher. They had been told by a
Buddhist priest, “who was well-read in Sinhalese Books, that two noted Temples of
Buddha” formerly existed in Maldives (Bell 1940:104)). Two other visitors to Maldives,
Mr. C. W. Rosset in 1886, and Mr. J. Stanley Gardiner in 1900, also recorded information
on the presence of ruins of Buddhist buildings on several islands (Bell 1940:104-105).
7
However, the most valuable contribution to archaeological data on pre-Islamic Maldives
was made by Mr. H. C. P. Bell, who collected a wealth of information during his later
visits to Maldives. Mr. Bell first visited Maldives in 1879 on another mission, and at the
end of that visit, he made the following observations in his provisional report:
“Whilst the evidence so far available is both quite insufficient, and of a nature too vague, to
warrant definite conclusion, it is far from improbable that a close scrutiny of names of
Islands, of non-Muhammadan (non-Muslim) customs and festivals, and, above all, an
Archaeological Survey will make it abundantly clear that Buddhist Missionaries, in the
spirit of the Asoka Edicts, departing to intermingle among all unbelievers, teaching better
things, carried their doctrine across the sea even to the despised and little known
Maldives.” (Bell 1940: 104).
The above observation suggests that Mr. Bell felt that it was quite probable that Buddhism
was brought to the Maldives about the same time as when missionary activity encouraged
by Emperor Asoka took place, resulting in the establishment of the religion in many South
Asian countries. However, it is left to doubt, whether the ancient missionaries regarded the
Maldives as “despised and little known.” As additional evidence of the islands’ past
religion, Mr. Bell noted the titles given to Maldivian royalty, and further, the names of
certain islands, which were suggestive of a Buddhistic past.
Mr. Bell returned twice more to Maldives. He visited many of the islands in the southern
atolls, which contained ancient mounds and investigated some of them. His findings were
published in detail in his monograph on the history, archaeology and epigraphy of
Maldives in 1940. These and subsequent findings of amateur Maldivian archaeologists
proved beyond doubt that Buddhist places of worship existed in Maldives before the
conversion to Islam.
In July 1958, a Maldivian team excavated the archaeological site in Thoddoo island in Ari
Atoll, where a figure of the Buddha (Fig.2.) and a relic casket was found. This was the
reliquary in which the earlier mentioned Roman coin was found.
An amateur archaeological expedition was undertaken by a Maldivian team in February
1959, to Ariadhoo island in Ari Atoll, where some ancient mounds were investigated. No
Buddhist relics were found, but another important relic was excavated, a carved coral
phallus (linga), 15 inches in height and 12 inches in circumference at the base (Maniku
1993:41). This was a unique find in Maldives, and lent weight to the theory that Hinduism
had also existed in the country during a bygone age.
In later years, several artifacts including images, caskets and miniature stupas belonging to
the Vajrayana sect of Buddhism, were found in various places in Male’ and in Ari Atoll. A
later archaeological find, also of Vajrayana context, had carvings of Hindu deities Siva,
Lakshmi, Kubera and sage Agasthiya. The cult of sage Agasthiya, being related to
maritime activities, was common in South India, Sri Lanka and also in Southeast Asia
(Ragupathy 1994).
In 1983-84 the Maldivian Government in collaboration with the Kon-Tiki Museum of
Oslo, undertook some excavations in Nilandhoo in Nilandhoo Atoll, one of the southern
8
atolls of Maldives. The report of this expedition states that the ancient Havitta (chaitya)
ruin on Nilandhoo Island was built about 400 years before the conversion to Islam. It
further stated that the finds of discarded building material with classic designs, in the fill
inside the ruins, indicated an older structure in the same locality, or in the neighbourhood
(Skjolsvold 1991). This could indicate an older Buddhist structure, or one belonging to an
earlier religion, since the ancient Maldivians built places of worship on older sites, after
destroying the existing buildings.
The same team visited other islands, which had ancient sites, including Vaadhoo and Gan
in South Huvadhoo Atoll. During their short stay in Gan, they found interesting material,
reminiscent of such sites in other countries of the region. Finds from Bodu Havitta, the
biggest mound on the island, included many decorated and moulded coral stone fragments
with a common motif. These were decorative elements including symbols of concentric
circles with a trisected band–like decoration on either side. They found especially striking,
the similarity of this design with the decoration displayed on a marble panel at Amaravati,
depicting “The Great Departure”, a panel dated to the second century A. D. The same motif
occurs on railings at the entrance of a Buddhist cave sanctuary at Udayagiri in Orissa
(Skjolsvold 1991:52-54 and 67-69). Due to the lack of time, the team did not have the
opportunity to carry out a full excavation of the site.
In cooperation with the National Centre for Linguistics and Historical Research in Male’,
archaeological excavations were conducted at Kaashidhoo Island in Kaafu Atoll, by
Professor Egil Mikkelsen of the University of Oslo, Norway, from 1996 to1998. These
excavations revealed that a Buddhist culture was established there “in the first part of the
first millennium A.D. probably founded on an Indian origin. Exchange relations were
established with South Asia and according to written sources, also with the Roman World,
and later also with China”(Mikkelsen 2000:22). There was also a Chinese bronze coin, a
cash-coin from the Northern Song Dynasty, struck under the Emperor T’ai Tsung in 990-
94 A.D (Mikkelsen 2000:21), indicating Chinese contacts in the 10th century.
The available findings led Mikkelsen to believe that cowrie shells played an important role
in the Buddhist culture and religion that existed in Maldives at that time, symbolically, as
well as in terms of economics. In his report he states that, around 500 A.D. when cowrie
shells spread to northern and central Europe, as shown by archaeological finds, they were
also mentioned as trading products from Maldives (Mikkelsen 2000). The ruler of
Maldives had control over the export and exchange of cowrie shells, leading to the import
of other commodities such as beads, gold and silver as well as metal objects which were
not available in Maldives. Other materials exchanged for cowries included pottery, china
and clay objects for everyday use. Mikkelsen was of the opinion that this provided for a
rich monastic culture in Maldives and that it could have been the start of the spread of
cowrie shells to the north. He felt that distance in itself was not necessarily a limitation on
contact (Mikkelsen 2000), which is proven by the fact that cowrie shells from islands in the
Indian Ocean found their way to the Far East, even to distant China.
Among the relics found at the Kaashidhoo site were offerings of bones of the giant tortoise
(Aldabrachelys elephantina), showing that this species existed in Maldives at that time.
Bones of turtles were also found ( Mikkelsen 2000:17).
9
During the last Buddhist period before the introduction of Islam, from the 10th to the late
12th century, part of the monastery site was used as a burial ground. Bones from four
graves were carbon dated, resulting in dates varying between the late 9th to the 12th century
A.D.
According to Mikkelsen’s findings, there were several different stages in the building of
the Kaashidhoo monastery, the structures being founded on different levels on older floors.
In some places, white coral sand had been used to cover older structures before the
construction of new buildings. Since the conclusion reached was, that building commenced
around the beginning of the 3rd century A.D., and continued until the 6th century A.D., it
may be assumed that by the 3rd century A.D., Buddhism had been well established in
Kaashidhoo. Mikkelsen felt that the building of miniature stupas, and conducting of
sacrificial ceremonies continued through the 7th to the 9th century. He found many
similarities to the type of construction found at Kaashidhoo, at Ratnagira in Orissa state in
India. (Mikkelsen 2000:21).
Language and Scripts
Linguistic research into the Dhivehi (Maldivian) language shows a divergence of Dhivehi
from its mother language as early as the 2nd or 1st century B.C (Cain 2000), indicating that
speakers of this idiom may have arrived in the Maldives prior to this period. Linguistic
evidence shows a close relationship between Dhivehi and Sinhala, both languages having
evolved from the same Prakrit, Proto-Dhivehi-Sinhala. B.Cain (2000:3) is of the opinion
that “perhaps as early as the 2nd c. B.C., Proto-Dhivehi-Sinhala came to the Maldives and
became the lingua franca of a diverse population made up of Aryan speakers, Dravidians
and possibly others”(Cain 2000:3). Frequent contact with neighbouring countries resulted
in their influence on Dhivehi and its development through the following centuries.
The earliest palaeographically datable inscription found in Maldives is a Sanskrit
inscription of Vajrayana Buddhism written in the Nagari script and can be dated to the 9th
century A.D. (Ragupathy 1994). This inscription is on the cover of a coral stone casket
(Fig.3.)
The earliest Maldivian script is Eveyla Akuru,the oldest examples of which can be found
on the Vajrayana images and artifacts that may be datable from the 9th to the 10th century
A.D. Later examples of this script can be found in the copperplate records of the 12th and
13th century A.D. Eveyla Akuru has close affinities with Sinhala Elu and Tamil and
Malayalam Vatteluttu scripts. As these scripts evolved from a common branch of Brahmi,
there are strong similarities between Eveyla, Elu and the South Indian scripts (Ragupathy
1994).
Conclusion
Interpreting the information gathered from sources within Maldives and data gathered from
documents from various parts of the world, the conclusion may be reached that Maldives
has been peopled for more than 2000 years. The earliest religion followed by the
Maldivians is not known, but the theory that Hinduism had existed at some ancient period
10
cannot be discarded. Immediately prior to the conversion to Islam, the Buddhist religion
existed in the islands, archaeological evidence pointing to a Buddhist culture that was in
place in the first part of the first millennium A.D.
The islands were independent for most of its known history, and were ruled by kings and
queens. The country had its own system of governance suited to its geographical situation.
The rulers of the country maintained contacts with countries of the region and powerful
nations. The islanders were hardy seafarers, and travelled long distances. Trading vessels
called at Maldives and sailors of the Indian Ocean had a fair knowledge of the country.
Structures were constructed out of available materials, hard coral stone and the timber of
the coconut palm, which grew in abundance. Fishing, boat building and coconut cultivation
were some of the important industries of pre-Islamic Maldives.
The difficulty for researchers of Maldivian history lies in the fact that many records and
artifacts of that early period no longer exist, and what remained was neglected for many
centuries. However, archaeological excavation could still bring to light the historical
information that lies buried beneath the soil of these islands, providing the answers to
questions on Maldives’ pre-Islamic past.
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this is brilient
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